Microelectronics

A branch of electronics is microelectronics. Microelectronics, as the name implies, is the study and production (or microfabrication) of extremely small electronic designs and components. This typically, though not always, refers to micrometer-scale or smaller. Typically, semiconductor materials are used to construct these devices. There are microelectronic equivalents for many parts used in conventional electronic design. Microelectronic devices often contain transistors, capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes, and (naturally) insulators and conductors. The exceptionally small size of the components, leads, and pads necessitates the employment of novel wiring techniques such wire bonding. This method is costly and necessitates specialist equipment.

Microelectronics

Numerous billions of transistors, resistors, diodes, and capacitors make up digital integrated circuits (ICs).  Resistors and capacitors are frequently seen in analogue circuits as well. Although inductors have a lower reactance at low frequencies than capacitors, they are nonetheless used in some high frequency analogue circuits. They can be replaced with gyrators in many situations.

The size of microelectronic components has decreased as technology have advanced[citation needed]. The proportional importance of inherent circuit characteristics, such as interconnections, may increase at lower scales. The aim of the microelectronics design engineer is to find ways to account for or limit these parasitic effects while producing smaller, quicker, and less expensive devices.

Electronic Design Automation software plays a significant role in the design of microelectronics today.

 

Bioelectronics:

Introduction:

Bioelectronics was described as "the application of biological materials and biological structures for information processing systems and innovative devices" at the first C.E.C. Workshop, held in Brussels in November 1991. According to one definition, bioelectronics, and more specifically bio-molecular electronics, is "the study and development of bio-inspired (i.e. self-assembly) inorganic and organic materials, and of bio-inspired (i.e. massive parallelism) hardware architectures for the implementation of new information processing systems, sensors, and actuators, and for molecular manufacturing down to the atomic scale."In a 2009 report, the US Department of Commerce's National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) referred to bioelectronics as "the discipline deriving from the convergence of biology and electronics."

 

Bio-elecronics

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), which has published its Elsevier journal Biosensors and Bioelectronics since 1990, is one source for information in the topic. The objective of bioelectronics, according to the journal, is to: "...exploit biology and electronics in a broader framework that includes, for instance, biological fuel cells, bionics, and biomaterials for information processing, information storage, electronic components, and actuators. The interaction between biological materials and micro- and nano-electronics is an important factor."

 

History:

Scientist Luigi Galvani conducted the first documented investigation into bioelectronics in the 18th century by putting a voltage on a set of broken frog legs. Bioelectronics began when the legs began to move. Since the invention of the pacemaker and the development of the medical imaging business, electronics technology has been utilised in biology and medicine. According to a 2009 analysis of papers with the phrase in the title or abstract, Europe (43 percent) and the United States (23 percent) were the regions with the most activity (20 percent).

 

Material Used In It:

The use of organic electronic components in the field of bioelectronics is known as organic bioelectronics. When it comes to interacting with biological systems, organic materials (i.e., those containing carbon) have a lot of promise. Applications today concentrate on infection and neurology.

 

Conducting polymer coatings, an organic electronic material, demonstrate a significant advancement in material science. It was the most advanced type of electrical stimulation available. Better recordings and less "harmful electrochemical side reactions" were produced as a result of improved electrode impedance during electrical stimulation. In 1984 Mark Wrighton and colleagues created Organic Electrochemical Transistors (OECT), which could move ions. Due to the increased signal-to-noise ratio, the measured impedance is low. Magnuss Berggren developed the Organic Electronic Ion Pump (OEIP), a tool that might be used to target particular bodily areas and organs to apply medication.

 

Titanium nitride (TiN), one of the few materials with a solid track record in CMOS technology, proved to be extraordinarily robust and well suited for electrode applications in medical implants.

 

Bio-elecronics

Applications:

People with diseases and disabilities can live better lives because to bioelectronics. One portable tool that helps diabetic individuals manage and measure their blood sugar levels is the glucose monitor. Patients with epilepsy, chronic pain, Parkinson's, deafness, Essential Tremor, and blindness are treated with electrical stimulation. A variant of Magnuss Berggren's OEIP, the first bioelectronic implant system utilised in a living, free animal for therapeutic purposes, was developed by other researchers. It sent electric currents into the acid GABA.Chronic pain is influenced by a shortage of GABA in the body. The injured nerves would then receive appropriate GABA distribution and experience pain relief. When the Cholinergic Anti-inflammatory Pathway (CAP) in the Vagus Nerve is activated with vagus nerve stimulation (VNS), patients with conditions like arthritis experience less inflammation. VNS can also help patients with depression and epilepsy since they are more likely to have a closed CAP. However, not all electronic systems that are used to enhance human life are necessarily bioelectronic devices; rather, only those that include a close and direct interaction between electronic and biological systems are considered to be bioelectronic devices.

 

 

 

Audio electronics:

Introduction:

Devices that reproduce, record, or process sound are referred to as audio equipment. This covers headphones, speakers, amplifiers, mixing consoles, CD players, tape recorders, radio receivers, and AV receivers.

 

Audio electronics

In many various settings, including concerts, clubs, conference rooms, and the home, audio equipment is frequently utilized to reproduce, record, and amplify sound.

 

In addition to performing certain signal processing tasks, electronic circuits regarded as being a part of audio electronics may also be built to make specific changes to the signal while it is in the electrical form.

 

Electric signals produced by electrical devices can be used to artificially produce audio signals.

 

Up until the development of advanced digital technology, analog electric circuit techniques were typically used to construct audio devices. Furthermore, due to its compatible digital nature, digital signals can be altered by computer software in a manner similar to how audio electronic equipment would. Both analog and digital design formats are still in use today, and whether one is best for a given application mostly depends on it.

 

The electrical, mechanical, electronic, or digital inscription and creation of sound waves, such as spoken speech, singing, instrumental music, or sound effects, is known as sound recording and reproduction. Analog recording and digital recording are the two basic categories of sound recording technology.

 

Sound recording is the process of transferring inaudible air vibrations to a storage media, like a phonograph disc. In sound reproduction, the process is reversed, and the variations stored on the medium are converted back into sound waves.

 

A microphone diaphragm monitors variations in atmospheric pressure brought on by acoustic sound waves and records them as a mechanical representation of the sound waves on a media like a phonograph record to create an acoustic analog recording (in which a stylus cuts grooves on a record). In magnetic tape recording, sound waves cause the microphone diaphragm to vibrate. This electric current is then changed into a changing magnetic field by an electromagnet, which creates magnetized patches on a plastic tape that has a magnetic coating. The opposite is true for analog sound reproduction, where a larger loudspeaker diaphragm modifies ambient pressure to produce acoustic sound waves.

 

By means of sampling, digital recording and reproduction transform the analog sound signal captured by the microphone into a digital format. As a result, a larger range of media can store and transmit audio data. When audio is recorded digitally, it is stored as a series of binary values (zeroes and ones) that represent samples of the audio signal's amplitude taken at regular intervals and at a sample rate that is high enough to transmit all sounds that are audible. Prior to being amplified and linked to a loudspeaker in order to produce sound, a digital audio stream must be converted back to analog during playback.

 

Instrumental music may be encoded and reproduced mechanically before the invention of sound recording, such as with wind-up music boxes and later player pianos.

 

Audio electronics

History:

Music was first recorded long before sound appeared, initially using written music notation and then mechanical instruments (e.g., wind-up music boxes, in which a mechanism turns a spindle, which plucks metal tines, thus reproducing a melody). The Ban Ms brothers created the earliest known mechanical musical instrument in the 9th century, a hydropowered (water-powered) organ that played interchangeable cylinders, which is when automatic music reproduction was first introduced. Charles B. Fowler claims that until the second half of the nineteenth century, this "cylinder with elevated pins on the surface remained the primary mechanism to make and reproduce music mechanically." The Ban Ms brothers also created what appears to have been the first programmable machine, an automatic flute player.

 

Although this notion has not been definitively proven, carvings at the Rosslyn Chapel from the 1560s may be an early attempt to record the Chladni patterns generated by sound in stone representations.

 

In Flanders, a mechanical bell-ringer operated by a rotating cylinder was first used in the fourteenth century. Similar styles also arose in music boxes, musical clocks (1598), barrel pianos (1805), and barrel organs in the 15th century (ca. 1800). An automatic musical instrument known as a music box makes sounds by using a set of pins that are positioned on a rotating cylinder or disc to pull the lamellae or tuned teeth of a steel comb.

 

The 1892 carnival organ employed an accordion-folded system of perforated cardboard booklets. A long piece of music could be stored on the player piano's punched paper scroll, which was first exhibited in 1876. The most complex piano rolls were "hand-played," which refers to copies made from a master roll made on a unique piano that made holes in the master as a live musician played the tune. In this way, the roll reflected more than just the more usual practice of punching the master roll through transcription of the sheet music; it was a recording of a person's real performance. It took until 1904 for the ability to capture a live performance onto a piano roll to be created. From 1896 through 2008, piano rolls were produced in large quantities continuously. In a 1908 copyright decision, the U.S. Supreme Court stated that between 1,000,000 and 1,500,000 piano rolls and 70,000 to 75,000 player pianos were made in just 1902.

 

Analogue electronics:

Introduction:

Contrary to digital electronics, where signals typically take only two levels, analog electronics are electronic systems with a continuously changeable signal. The proportional relationship between a signal and a voltage or current that represents the signal is referred to as "analog." The Greek word "analogueos," which means "proportional," is the source of the English word analogue.

 

Analogue electronics

An analogue signal transmits information using a property of the medium. An angular location of a needle, for instance, is used as a signal by an aneroid barometer to indicate changes in air pressure. Changes in electrical signals' voltage, current, frequency, or overall charge can be used to convey information. A transducer, which transforms one form of energy into another, translates information from another physical form (such as sound, light, temperature, pressure, or position) to an electrical signal (e.g. a microphone)

 

Each distinct signal value reflects a different piece of information, and the signals can take any value from a predetermined range. Each level of the signal indicates a distinct level of the phenomenon it describes, and any change in the signal is significant. Consider the signal as a temperature indicator, with one volt standing in for one degree Celsius. According to this approach, 10 volts correspond to 10 degrees, and 10.1 volts to 10.1 degrees.

 

Analogue electronics

The use of modulation is an additional means of transmitting an analog signal. This includes changing one or more aspects of a basic carrier signal. Amplitude modulation (AM) modifies the amplitude of a sinusoidal voltage waveform while frequency modulation (FM) modifies the frequency. There are many other methods, such phase modulation or altering the carrier signal's phase.

 

The variation in the sound pressure that strikes a microphone during an analog sound recording causes a corresponding variation in the current or voltage across the microphone. The current or voltage fluctuation grows proportionally as the sound level fluctuates while maintaining the same waveform or shape.

 

Analog signals can be used in mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and other systems.

 

Random disturbances or fluctuations, some of which are brought on by the random thermal vibrations of atomic particles, are invariably present in analog systems. Any disturbance is comparable to a change in the original signal and appears as noise since all variations of an analog signal are significant. These random changes become more severe and cause signal deterioration as the signal is copied and recopied or sent across extended distances. Crosstalk from other signals or components that are poorly built could be additional sources of noise. Utilizing low-noise amplifiers and shielding both help to lessen these problems (LNA).

 

Analog and digital electronics interpret signals in different ways because the information is encoded in them differently. In the digital realm, all operations that can be applied to an analogue signal, such as amplification, filtering, limiting, and others, can also be carried out. Because any digital circuit's behavior can be explained using the principles of analogue circuits, every digital circuit is also an analog circuit.

 

Utilizing microelectronics has reduced the cost and increased accessibility of digital gadgets.

 

The level of the noise determines how it affects an analog circuit. The analogue transmission gets affected increasingly and loses use over time as noise level rises. Analog signals are considered to "fail gracefully" as a result. Intelligible information can still be found in analogue signals even when there is a lot of noise present. Contrarily, digital circuits are completely unaffected by noise up to a specific threshold, after which they experience catastrophic failure. The use of error detection and repair coding methods and algorithms for digital telecommunications can raise the noise threshold. However, there is still a point at which the link catastrophically fails.

 

Because the information in digital electronics is quantized, a signal can represent the same information as long as it stays within a given range of values. At each logic gate in digital circuits, the signal is regenerated, reducing or eliminating noise. [failed to verify] Signal loss in analog circuits can be recovered using amplifiers. But noise builds up over the entire system, and the amplifier itself will amplify the noise in accordance with its noise figure.

 

The amount of noise in the original signal and the noise that processing adds are the key elements that impact how precise a signal is (see signal-to-noise ratio). The resolution of analogue signals is constrained by fundamental physical factors like shot noise in components. In digital electronics, extra precision is provided by representing the signal with more digits. Since digital operations can typically be done without losing precision, the analogue-to-digital converter's (ADC) capability determines the practical limit for the number of digits. An analog signal is converted into a string of binary integers by the ADC. The ADC can be used in straightforward digital display devices like thermometers and light meters, but it can also be utilized for data collecting and digital sound recording. A digital signal is converted to an analog signal using a device called a digital-to-analog converter (DAC). A DAC transforms a stream of binary numbers into an analog signal. A DAC is frequently found in an op-gain-control amp's system, which may then be used to operate digital amplifiers and filters.

 

Analogue electronics

When compared to analogous digital systems, analog circuits are often more difficult to conceptualize. This is one of the primary causes of the rise in popularity of digital systems over analog ones. As opposed to digital systems, analogue circuits are typically constructed by hand and with far less automation. Since the early 2000s, platforms have been created that make it possible to describe analog design using software, allowing for quicker prototyping. A digital electronic gadget will, however, always require an analog interface in order to communicate with the outside world. For instance, the initial stage of the receive chain in every digital radio receiver is an analog preamplifier.

 

The only components in an analog circuit are resistors, capacitors, and inductors. Transistors and other active components are found in active circuits. Discrete components, or lumped parts, are used to construct conventional circuits. Distributed-element circuits, constructed from segments of transmission line, offer an option.

 

Electronics:

Introduction:

Electronics is a branch of physics and electrical engineering that deals with the emission, behaviour and effects of electrons using electronic devices. Hardware utilizes dynamic gadgets to control electron stream by intensification and correction, which separates it from traditional electrical designing, which just purposes aloof impacts, for example, obstruction, capacitance and inductance to control electric flow stream.

Electronics

 

History & Development:

The field of electronics and the electron age were established by the detection of the electron in 1897 and the following development of the vacuum tube, which could amplify and correct minuscule electrical impulses. [1] Ambrose Fleming and Lee De Forest's inventions of the diode and triode in the early 1900s opened the door for practical applications since they allowed for the non-mechanical detection of modest electrical voltages like radio signals from a radio antenna.

 

The first active electronic components, vacuum tubes (thermionic valves), were responsible for the electronics revolution in the first half of the 20th century. They made it possible to build devices that used current amplification and rectification to give rise to radio, television, radar, long-distance telephony, and many other technologies. Electronic amplifiers were being employed in a variety of applications, including long-distance telephone and the music recording business, when the 1920s came around. This was due to the early, rapid rise of electronics.

 

The next major scientific advancement didn't happen for some decades, but in 1947 John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain of Bell Labs created the first functional point-contact transistor. However, up until the middle of the 1980s, vacuum tubes were a pioneer in the fields of microwave and high power transmission as well as television receivers. Since then, solid-state technology has nearly supplanted all others. In some specialised applications, including high power RF amplifiers, cathode ray tubes, specialised audio equipment, guitar amplifiers, and some microwave devices, vacuum tubes are still employed.

 

The IBM 608 was the first IBM device to employ transistor circuits without any vacuum tubes, debuting in April 1955. It is said to be the first commercially available all-transistorized calculator. More than 3,000 germanium transistors were present in the 608 chip. All upcoming IBM products were required by Thomas J. Watson Jr. to incorporate transistors into their design. Transistors were then nearly always employed for computer logic and peripherals. Early junction transistors, on the other hand, were rather large and challenging to produce in large quantities, which restricted them to a handful of specialised applications.

 

At Bell Labs in 1959, Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng created the MOSFET (MOS transistor). The MOSFET was the first genuinely small transistor that could be mass-produced and miniaturised for a variety of applications. Great scalability, low cost, low power consumption, and high density are some of its benefits. As the most extensively used electronic gadget on the planet, it changed the electronics industry. The MOSFET is the fundamental component of the majority of contemporary electronics.

 

Problems emerged as circuit complexity increased. The size of the circuit was one issue. A computer is a sophisticated circuit that depends on speed. The wires connecting the components had to be long if the components were big. The circuit needed time to process the electric impulses, which slowed the computer. This issue was resolved when Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce created the integrated circuit by fabricating the chip, all of the parts, and the components from a single block (monolith) of semiconductor material. The manufacturing procedure might be mechanised and the circuits could be made smaller.This gave rise to the concept of integrating all components onto a single-crystal silicon wafer, which in turn gave rise to small-scale integration (SSI) in the early 1960s, medium-scale integration (MSI) in the late 1960s, and finally VLSI in the early 1970s. Billion-transistor processors started to be sold commercially in 2008.