Semiconductor device:

Introduction:

A semiconductor device is an electronic component that operates primarily on the electronic properties of silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide, as well as organic semiconductors. Its conductivity falls in the range of insulators and conductors. Vacuum tubes have mostly been supplanted by semiconductor devices. Instead of conducting electricity as free electrons through a vacuum (usually released by thermionic emission) or as free electrons and ions via an ionized gas, they do so in the solid state.

 

Semiconductor device

Both discrete single semiconductor devices and integrated circuit (IC) chips—which contain two or more devices that can range in number from the hundreds to the billions—are produced in the semiconductor industry (also called a substrate).

 

Semiconductor materials are advantageous because doping, or the intentional addition of impurities, can quickly change their behavior. Semiconductors make great sensors because they have the ability to control conductivity through the application of an electric or magnetic field, exposure to light or heat, or mechanical deformation of a doped monocrystalline silicon grid. Charge carriers, also referred to as mobile or "free" electrons and electron holes, are responsible for current conduction in semiconductors. The amount of free electrons or holes within a semiconductor is significantly increased by doping it with a little amount of an atomic impurity, such as boron or phosphorus.A doped semiconductor is referred to as a p-type semiconductor (p for positive electric charge) when it has an excess of holes, and an n-type semiconductor when it has an excess of free electrons (n for negative electric charge). Most mobile charge providers use a negative charge. The placement and concentration of p- and n-type dopants are precisely controlled during semiconductor fabrication. P-n junctions are created when n- and p-type semiconductors are connected.

 

The metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor, also known as the MOS transistor, is the most popular semiconductor device in use today. As of 2013, every day billions of MOS transistors are produced. Since 1978, the number of semiconductor devices produced annually has increased by 9.1% on average. In 2018, shipments are expected to reach 1 trillion for the first time, suggesting that well over 7 trillion semiconductor devices have been produced overall.

 

Common semiconductor devices are listed as:

n DIAC

n Diode (rectifier diode)

n Gunn diode

n IMPATT diode

n Laser diode

n Light-emitting diode (LED)

n Photocell

n Phototransistor

n PIN diode

n Schottky diode

n Solar cell

n Transient-voltage-suppression diode

n Tunnel diode

n VCSEL

n Zener diode

n Zen diode

n Bipolar transistor

n Darlington transistor

n Field-effect transistor

n Insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)

n Silicon-controlled rectifier

n Thyristor

n TRIAC

n Unijunction transistor

n Hall effect detector (magnetic field sensor)

n Photocoupler (Optocoupler)

 

Semiconductor device

Applications for Semiconductor Devices:

The building blocks of logic gates, which are essential in the creation of digital circuits, can be any form of transistor. Transistors serve as on-off switches in digital circuits like microprocessors; in the case of a MOSFET, for example, the voltage provided to the gate decides whether the switch is on or off.

 

Instead of functioning as on-off switches, analog circuit transistors respond to a continuous range of inputs with a continuous range of outputs. Amplifiers and oscillators are examples of typical analog circuits.

 

Mixed-signal circuits are those that interface or translate between digital and analog circuitry.

 

Semiconductor device

Identifiers for components:

 

Devices made of semiconductors frequently have manufacturer-specific component numbers. However, some devices adhere to the type code standards that have been attempted to be created. There are three standards, for instance, for discrete devices: Pro Electron in Europe, JEDEC JESD370B in the United States, and Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS).

 

Discrete or integrated circuits designed for high current or high voltage applications are known as power semiconductor devices. Power integrated circuits, sometimes known as "smart" power devices, combine power semiconductor technology with IC technology. Power semiconductor production is a niche industry with several manufacturers.

 

Transistor:

Introduction:

The semiconductor device known as a transistor is used to switch or amplify electrical impulses. The transistor is one of the fundamental components of contemporary electronics.  It has at least three terminals for connecting to an electronic circuit and is made of semiconductor material. The current flowing through another pair of the transistor's terminals is controlled by the voltage or current provided to one set of those terminals. A transistor can magnify a signal because the regulated (output) power can be greater than the controlling (input) power. Although many more transistors are found embedded in integrated circuits, some are packaged individually.

 

Transistor

Julius Edgar Lilienfeld, an Austro-Hungarian physicist, first presented the idea of a field-effect transistor in 1926, but it was not feasible to create a functional device at that time. The point-contact transistor, created in 1947 by American physicists John Bardeen and Walter Brattain while working for William Shockley at Bell Labs, was the first functional electronic device. For their accomplishment, the three were awarded a joint 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics.

 

The metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), developed by Dawon Kahng and Mohamed Atalla at Bell Labs in 1959, is the most used form of transistor.  Transistors changed the electronics industry and made it possible for items like smaller and less expensive computers, calculators, and radios.

 

The majority of transistors are composed of extremely pure silicon, although some are also built of germanium. However, other semiconductor materials are sometimes occasionally utilised. In field-effect transistors, a transistor can only have one type of charge carrier; however, bipolar junction transistors can have two types of charge carriers. Transistors often use less power to function and are smaller than vacuum tubes. When running at very high operating frequencies or high operating voltages, some vacuum tubes are preferable over transistors. Numerous manufacturers produce various transistor types following defined criteria.

 

Background:

The thermionic triode, a vacuum tube created in 1907, made it possible to use long-distance telecommunications and amplified radio technologies. However, the triode was a delicate component that used a lot of electricity. The crystal diode oscillator was discovered by scientist William Eccles in 1909. In 1925, the Austro-Hungarian physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld submitted a Canadian patent application for a field-effect transistor (FET), which he intended to use as a solid-state alternative to the triode. In addition, Lilienfeld submitted similar patent applications in the US in 1926 and 1928.

 

However, neither Lilienfeld's patents nor any research publications he published about his inventions included any particular instances of a functional prototype. Even if such a device had been created, Lilienfeld's solid-state amplifier ideas would not have found widespread application in the 1920s and 1930s since the production of high-quality semiconductor materials was still decades away. A comparable invention was patented in Europe in 1934 by German inventor Oskar Heil.

Transistor

The Value of the Transistor:

The essential active elements in almost all contemporary electronics are transistors. As a result, the transistor is regarded by many as one of the 20th century's greatest innovations.

 

Bell Labs' development of the first transistor was recognised as an IEEE Milestone in 2009. The 1948 invention of the junction transistor and the 1959 development of the MOSFET are likewise included on the list of IEEE Milestones.

 

The MOSFET, also known as the MOS transistor or metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor, is by far the most frequently used transistor, found in everything from computers and electronics to communications technologies like cellphones. The MOSFET is regarded as the most significant transistor, conceivably the most significant electronic invention, and the forerunner of contemporary electronics. Since the late 20th century, the MOS transistor has served as the core component of contemporary digital electronics, ushering in the digital era.

 

It is a "groundbreaking invention that altered life and culture around the world," according to the US Patent and Trademark Office. Its capacity to be mass-produced via a highly automated method (semiconductor device fabrication) that delivers astoundingly low per-transistor costs underlies its significance in today's society. With almost 13 sextillion made by 2018, MOSFETs are the most widely produced artificial objects ever.It is a "groundbreaking invention that altered life and culture around the world," according to the US Patent and Trademark Office. Its capacity to be mass-produced via a highly automated method (semiconductor device fabrication) that delivers astoundingly low per-transistor costs underlies its significance in today's society. With almost 13 sextillion made by 2018, MOSFETs are the most widely produced artificial objects ever.

 

The vast majority of transistors are now produced in integrated circuits (often abbreviated to IC, microchips, or simply chips), along with diodes, resistors, capacitors, and other electronic components, to produce complete electronic circuits, even though several companies each produce over a billion discrete MOS transistors annually. An advanced microprocessor, as of 2021, can use as much as 39 billion transistors, compared to a logic gate's up to twenty transistors (MOSFETs)

 

Because of the transistor's affordability, adaptability, and dependability, it is a commonplace gadget. Electromechanical devices have been superseded by transistorised mechatronic circuits in the control of equipment and appliances. A conventional microcontroller and a computer software may typically perform a control function more quickly, easily, and affordably than designing an equivalent mechanical system.