Microcontroller:
Introduction:
A microcontroller is a tiny computer on a single VLSI integrated circuit (IC) chip, often known as an MCU (microcontroller unit). One or more CPUs (processor cores), memory, and programmable input/output peripherals are all included in a microcontroller. Along with a tiny amount of RAM, on-chip programme memory frequently also includes ferroelectric RAM, NOR flash, or OTP ROM. In contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general-purpose applications made up of numerous discrete chips, microcontrollers are intended for embedded applications.
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A system on a chip is similar to a microcontroller in modern parlance, but it is less complex (SoC). However, a SoC typically combines cutting-edge peripherals like a graphics processing unit (GPU) and a Wi-Fi interface controller as its internal microcontroller unit circuits. An SoC may connect external microcontroller chips as motherboard components.
Automotive engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office equipment, appliances, power tools, toys, and other embedded systems are just a few examples of the automatically controlled goods and gadgets that use microcontrollers. Microcontrollers make it affordable to digitally control even more devices and processes since they are smaller and less expensive than designs that require individual microprocessors, memories, and input/output devices. In order to control non-digital electronic equipment, mixed signal microcontrollers are frequently used. Microcontrollers are a popular and affordable method of data collection, sensing, and controlling the physical world as edge devices in the context of the internet of things.
For low power consumption, some microcontrollers may operate at frequencies as low as 4 kHz and use four-bit words (single-digit milliwatts or microwatts). Many of them are particularly suited for long-lasting battery applications since they typically have the capacity to maintain functionality while anticipating an event, such as a button press or other interrupt; power consumption when sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off) may be mere nanowatts. Other microcontrollers might play performance-critical jobs where they might need to behave more like a digital signal processor (DSP), requiring higher clock rates and power use.
Background:
The Four-Phase Systems AL1 in 1969 and the Garrett AiResearch MP944 in 1970 were the first multi-chip microprocessors to be created using multiple MOS LSI circuits. The Intel 4004 was the first single-chip microprocessor, and it was released in 1971 on a single MOS LSI chip. Federico Faggin, along with Intel engineers Marcian Hoff and Stan Mazor, and Busicom engineer Masatoshi Shima, created it utilising his silicon-gate MOS technology. [1] The 4-bit Intel 4040, 8-bit Intel 8008, and 8-bit Intel 8080 came after it. To create a functioning system, each of these CPUs needed a number of other chips, such as memory and peripheral interface chips. Since the entire system cost several hundred dollars in the 1970s US, it was not feasible to inexpensively computerise simple appliances.
In 1975, MOS Technology unveiled the 6501 and 6502, two sub-$100 microprocessors. The main goal of these microprocessors was to lower this cost barrier, but they also needed external support, memory, and peripheral chips, which maintained the overall system cost in the hundreds of dollars.
Development:
One book claims that in 1971, TI engineers Gary Boone and Michael Cochran successfully developed the first microcontroller. Their efforts led to the creation of the TMS 1000, which was released for sale in 1974. It was designed for embedded systems and included read-only memory, read/write memory, a CPU, and a clock on a single chip.
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Japanese electronics companies started making microcontrollers for automobiles in the early to mid-1970s. These included 4-bit MCUs for in-car entertainment, automatic wipers, electronic locks, and dashboard, and 8-bit MCUs for engine management.
The single-chip TMS 1000 prompted Intel to create the Intel 8048, a computer system on a chip designed for control applications, with the first commercial parts shipping in 1977. It included a microprocessor, RAM, and ROM all on one chip. This chip would eventually be used in more than one billion PC keyboards, among other things. Luke J. Valenter, Intel's president at the time, increased the microcontroller division's budget by more than 25% after declaring that it was one of the company's most successful products in history.
At this time, the majority of microcontrollers had concurrent variations. One contained an EPROM programme memory that could be wiped by ultraviolet radiation thanks to a transparent quartz glass in the package's lid. For prototyping, these erasable chips were frequently employed. The other option was either a PROM that could only be programmed once or a mask-coded ROM. For the latter, the abbreviation OTP, which stands for "one-time programmable," was occasionally used. The PROM was typically the same type as the EPROM in an OTP microcontroller, but the chip packaging lacked a quartz window, making it impossible to expose the EPROM to UV light, which prevented it from being erased.The erasable versions were substantially more expensive than the OTP versions because they had to be created in relatively affordable opaque plastic packages, but the erasable versions needed ceramic packages with quartz windows. Quartz was required for the erasable variations instead of less expensive glass because of its transparency to UV light, which glass is largely opaque to. However, the ceramic packaging itself was the key cost differentiator.
The invention of EEPROM memory in 1993 made it possible to easily electrically erase microcontrollers (starting with the Microchip PIC16C84) without the need for a costly packaging as was necessary for EPROM, enabling both rapid prototyping and in-system programming. (EEPROM technology existed earlier, but it was more expensive and less reliable, making it unsuitable for mass-produced, low-cost microcontrollers.) The first microcontroller incorporating Flash memory, a particular kind of EEPROM, was released by Atmel the same year. Other businesses quickly adopted both memory types, following suit.
Microcontrollers are currently affordable and easily accessible for enthusiasts, with vibrant online communities centred around specific processors.
Most Compact Computer:
The University of Michigan revealed the "smallest computer in the world" on June 21. A grain of rice would be larger than the gadget, which is described as a "0.04 mm3 16 nW wireless and batteryless sensor system with integrated Cortex-M0+ processor and optical communication for cellular temperature measurement." [...] The new computing gadgets also contain processors, wireless transmitters, and receivers in addition to RAM and photovoltaics. They receive and transmit data using visible light since they are too small to have conventional radio antennae.For programming and electricity, a base station supplies light, and it also receives data. The device is 1/10th the size of IBM's allegedly world's smallest computer, which is "smaller than a grain of salt", contains a million transistors, costs less than $0.10 to produce, and is integrated with blockchain technology for logistics and "crypto-anchors"—digital fingerprint applications.
